| Index |  |
Epo |
 | ||
| Index | |
Epo |
| ||
Most anthropologist believe that the first inhabitants of America came from Asia during that last ice age, approximately 14,000 years ago. Some believe that they came earlier, even more than 20,000 years ago, but the evidence for this is still disputed. In any case, for thousands of years, the first Americans were hunters and gatherers.
The ice age ended about 9000 years ago (7000 BC). From 7000 to 2000 BC, hunting and gathering were still important, but the inhabitants of Mesoamerica (central Mexico to northern Costa Rica) began to cultivate various plants: maize, beans, squash, peppers etc. Some experts believe that the ancestors of the Maya were the first to cultivate maize.
During the Pre-Classic period, agriculture became a much more important source of food. Villages became permanent and densely populated, and social hierarchies formed.
The earliest civilization in Mesoamerica was that of the Olmec, which flourished from approximately 1400 BC to 400 BC, along the coast of Tabasco and Veracruz. The Olmec built the first cities, with palaces and pyramids. The great stone heads which they sculpted are famous.
This map shows several states of Central America and southern
Mexico. Some ancient cities are marked with red pyramids. (Please
note that there were many more ancient cities than those marked.)
Mountainous regions are indicated with a lighter colour.
|
The Olmec culture is considered the 'mother culture' of Mesoamerica, because cultures which flourished after it, including that of the Maya, borrowed much from it.
Another major influence on the Pre-Classic Maya was the Izapan culture. Izapa was an ancient city located 32 kilometres from the Pacific coast in modern Chiapas. During Olmec times, the city was a centre for the cacao trade. When Olmec influence in the region disappeared, Izapa became a powerful city. It's most prosperous period was from 300 to 50 BC.
The bas-reliefs of Izapa depict gods which are the same as or similar to those which the Maya venerated. Among them is an early form of Chaak, the Mayan god of rain, who can be seen everywhere in the ancient cities of Yucatán.
No written texts or inscribed dates have been found at Izapa itself, but Izapan civilization includes other cities. At El Baul, for example, a stela was found with glyphs and a date of 36 AD.
The ancient city Kaminaljuyú (pronounce Kaminalhooyoo), which is close to modern Guatemala City, no doubt strongly influenced the development of Mayan culture. The inhabitants of Kaminaljuyú made large sculptures, in Izapan style, and had a written language. The written language is still undeciphered, but experts see a remarkable similarity to the later Mayan script.
External Links: Wkpd: Olmec Izapa El Baul
The Mayan Classic period is defined as approximately 250 AD to 925 AD. (From this point on, please assume that all dates are 'AD'.) The characteristic features of this period are written language and Long Count dates on monuments. Before the Classic, the Maya had cities, pyramids, and works of art, but there are few examples of writing before the Classic period.
The Classic period is subdivided into three parts: the Early Classic (250 - 600), the Late Classic (600 - 800), and the Terminal Classic (800 - 925).
The Mayan territory consists of three areas: the southern, the
central, and the northern.
The southern area includes the Pacific coast and the Sierra Madre, a mountain range. Because the Maya in this area were under foreign rule for a long time, several typical features of Mayan culture are lacking.
The central area includes Belize, parts of the Mexican states Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas, and Peten, which is the northern department of Guatemala. Peten was the centre of classical Mayan civilization. Several very important ancient cities are located there: Tikal, Waxaktun, El Mirador, and others.
The northern area consists of the Mexican states of Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo. The most famous Mayan city in the northern area is Chich'en Itza, with its Pyramid of Kukulkan. Another famous city of the northern area is Uxmal. (Pronounced Ooshmal.)
The central and northern areas are located on a vast limestone shelf which rose from the ocean millions of years ago. In the central area there are hills, but the northern area is very flat. The central area has lakes and rivers, but in the northern area, surface water is very rare. The Maya of the northern area depended on natural wells and artificial water reservoirs during the dry season.
NB: The central area is often referred to as 'the southern lowlands'. Please don't confuse this with the southern area, which is mountainous.
 Ancient Mayan Cities
The map at right shows ancient cities mentioned in this essay, plus a few others which are famous. It certainly isn't complete; many important cities are not marked. All these cities are Mayan, except Izapa. Names which are derived from an indigenous language are blue, and those which are derived from Spanish are black. The Mayan names are spelled as they would appear on a Mexican map. (The Maya and mayanists now use a new orthography, which is somewhat different from the traditional. *) There is an explanation about the origin of some city names here.  |
 |
One of the most important Mayan cities of the Classic period was Tikal, located in Peten, Guatemala. Tikal was founded as early as the ninth century BC. During the Early Classic, the city became powerful and began to dominate neighbouring cities.
Today Tikal is one of the most beautiful archeological sites in the world, and as such is listed in UNESCO's World Heritage List. The site has many large structures, such as palaces, ceremonial platforms, ball courts, etc., but the most impressive are the six steep pyramids, which range in height from 38 to 66 metres. (These pyramids were built during the Late Classic period.)
In the year 378, on the 14th of January, an important event occurred at Tikal. The king, Great Jaguar Paw (Chak Tok Ich'aak) died. At the same time, Born of Fire (Siyah K'ak') 'arrived' at Tikal from the west. Born of Fire seems to have been a subordinate of Spearthrower Owl (Atlatl Cauac). The following year, the young son of Spearthrower Owl, whose name was First Crocodile (Nun Yax Ayin), was installed as the ruler of Tikal. It's interesting that First Crocodile is depicted on a stela at Tikal in the costume of a Teotihuacán warrior. Evidently, Tikal was conquered by Teotihuacanos, a non-Maya people.
Teotihuacán was a very powerful city in central Mexico, founded by a militant people. Before it's destruction in the sixth century, it reached a population of more than 100,000 people. It's ruins are located approximately 45 kilometres north-east of modern Mexico City.
The Teotihuacán dynasty ruled at Tikal and neighbouring Waxaktun for two hundreds years. It's influence can be seen in the style of monuments, and the images of Teotihuacán gods. At other cities of Peten, Teotihuacán influence is less evident. Perhaps these cities remained under Mayan rule.
Teotihuacanos also invaded the southern Mayan area. Some time after the year 400, they captured the city Kaminaljuyú. From that time on, Mayan culture in the southern area was largely replaced by the culture of the conquerors.
During the late sixth century, Teotihuacán was destroyed. The cause is not known. The Teotihuacanos at Tikal and Waxaktun also suffered an unfortunate fate. In the year 562, Caracol, and Calakmul, enemy cities, attacked and conquered Tikal. During the next century, no new monuments were built at Tikal, and there are signs of vandalism. After the dark century, during the Late Classic period, Tikal and Waxaktun again prospered, but Teotihuacán power had disappeared from the Mayan area.
 |
|
 |
In the year 682, Double Moon, also known as Lord Cacao (Hasaw Chan K'awil, Ah Kakaw) became king of Tikal. He defeated Calakmul in 695, and sacrificed its king. (The Maya, like other indigenous people of Mesoamerica, sacrificed people to their gods by decapitation or tearing out the heart.)
During his 52 year reign, Lord Cacao restored the power of Tikal. The population of the city is estimated to have reached 90,000 people, but the territory which he controlled contained up to a million people. The 44 metre pyramid named 'Temple I' at Tikal is his funerary monument.
Tikal was the largest Mayan city of the Classic period, but it should be remembered that there were dozens of cities across the Mayan territory. Because I hope to finish this essay before it becomes a book, I will have to neglect many interesting cities.
Starting from the last half of the eighth century, Mayan civilization in the central area began its long decline. There are various opinions concerning the reasons. According to Michael D. Coe, an American anthropologist and author of 'The Maya', most archeologist now agree that there were three main causes: wars, ecological crisis cause by large population, and drought.
Today the ancient cities of Peten are surrounded by rain forest, but during the Late Classic, the region was densely inhabited by millions of Maya, who cut down the forests to create farms. Deforestation caused ecological problems, erosion, etc.
A serious ecological problem was overuse of land. The Maya well understood that if a plot of land is continuously cultivated, its fertility diminishes. It's necessary to plant elsewhere. But when there are no more free plots of land, this is not possible.
It seems that the Mayan population grew to a size greater than their territory could support. When natural resources become scarce, wars are inevitable. The Maya had fought each other during their entire history, but during the last half of the eighth century, these wars became more severe, more destructive.
Drought certainly contributed to the collapse of Mayan civilization. In the Mayan territory, rain falls during summer months, and the weather from January to May is very dry. Many cities depended on natural wells and artificial reservoirs during the dry season. In the northern area, where surface water is very rare, this is obvious, but the cities in the central area also needed water reservoirs. Tikal had ten around the city centre.
Recently, Professors Peterson and Haug examined marine sediments off northern Venezuela to determine ancient climate conditions. (Ref.) According to them, there were four periods of drought around the years 760, 810, 860, and 910. The drought of 810 was the longest; it lasted 8 years. For a society which was already experiencing ecological problems, these droughts were no doubt a serious blow.
The collapse of Mayan civilization happened gradually; and it didn't happen everywhere at the same time. The central area fell first. After 869, there was no new construction at Tikal. After 900, the city was abandoned. The situation was similar at other large cities of Peten.
While the cities of the central area were being abandoned, the cities in the northern area remained stable. Some even flourished. This seems very counter-intuitive, because the northern area receives even less rain than the central area, and rivers and lakes are almost completely absent.
 |
But what about the central area? Why couldn't they profit from such natural wells? The reason is that the height of the land is higher in the central area. In other words, the underground water level is deeper. The Maya could not easily reach it. They had to depend on rain to fill their artificial reservoirs.
Natural wells, however, cannot fully explain why the northern area survived the crisis which hit the central region. In the Mexican state of Yucatán, there is an area of low hills called Puuk, or Puuc. (The northern area is generally very flat.) At Puuk, the soil is fertile, but there are no natural wells. In spite of the lack of wells, several cities prospered there during the Terminal Classic, including Uxmal (pronounced 'ooshmal'), which is known for its beautiful architecture. Obviously, for some time at least, the water reservoirs were sufficient.
 |
In any case, the prosperity of the Puuk region didn't last long. At the end of the tenth century, the cities of this region were ghost towns. The reason for this collapse is not well understood, but it's possible that, like the central area, the population grew to an unsustainable level.
Chichén Itzá is one of the most famous ancient cities of America. Every day buses transport hundreds of tourists from nearby Cancun to visit the ruins.
One often hears or reads about 'the Mayan city Chichén Itzá', but many buildings there, including the famous Pyramid of Kukulkan, show Toltec influence. During the Post Classic period of Mayan history, the Toltecs played a major role.
Please note: The history of Chichén Itzá is disputed. My main source was 'The Maya', by Michael D. Coe. ( Ref.)
 |
The Toltec were a Nahuatl-speaking people from central Mexico. In the early tenth century, they founded a city called Tula, about 65 kilometres north of modern Mexico City. Some believe that the Toltec were descendants of the people who built Teotihuacán, which was at that time an abandoned city. Like the Teotihuacanos, the Toltec were very militant. They conquered other peoples and created an empire which stretched from the Caribbean to the Pacific.
The Toltec worshipped mainly two gods: Feather Serpent was the god of learning and culture, and Smoking Mirror was the god of war. These two gods are usually known by their Mexica (Aztec) names: Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca. In the late tenth century, there was a dispute between the king, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, who was the chief priest of Quetzalcoatl, and the warrior classes, who worshipped Tezcatlipoca. The warrior classes won. Around 987, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and his followers had to flee Tula. The king swore that he would return someday to avenge himself. (Five hundred years later, the Mexica king Moctezuma, who knew of this oath, became convinced that Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcoatl, and therefore invincible.)
Topiltzin and his followers fled to the Caribbean coast, and travelled south by boat to Yucatán. They fought the Maya in the ocean, and later on land. Because of the collapse of their civilization, the Maya were not sufficiently strong enough to repel the invaders. The Toltec took the city Chichén Itzá, and made it their capital. (At that time, the name of the city was not Chichén Itzá. It was probably Uukil-abnal, which means 'Seven Bushes'. The Maya called their new king Kukulkan, which means, in the Yucatec language, Feather Serpent.
After the Toltec invasion, the cultures of the two peoples mixed. Buildings made before the arrival of the Toltec were built in Puuk style, as at Uxmal. After the Toltec invasion, the Puuk style mixed with Toltec style.
The religions also mixed. This was probably not difficult, because the people of Mesoamerica had many common beliefs.
The Toltec empire in northern Yucatán did not last long. At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the Chichén Itzá was abandoned. The reason is not clear.
A migrant tribe of Maya, the Itza, found the abandoned city and settled there. The king of the Itza called himself Kukulkan, to imitate the glorious Toltec king. (The modern name of the city, Chichén Itzá, means 'mouth of the well of the Itza', a reference to the sacred well and the ruling tribe.)
It seem that the Yucatán Maya hated the Itza. In the fifteenth century, between 1441 and 1461, they rebelled. The Itza had to flee to Peten.
 |
|
 |
In 1511, a Spanish ship sailing from a colony in Panama to Cuba ran aground on a reef. The captain, Valdivia, and 18 others drifted in a small boat for two weeks. Seven died of hunger before they reached Yucatán, where they were captured by Maya. The captain and four others were murdered and eaten. A few Spanish managed to escape and flee to a friendlier group of Maya, who accepted them as slaves. After some time, there were only two survivors: a sailor, Gonzalo Guerrero, and a priest, Geronimo de Aguilar.
Both men learned the Mayan language, but Guerrero fully integrated with the Maya. He became a soldier and military consultant, and married a high-ranking Maya woman, with whom he had three sons. Aguilar, because of his priestly oath, remained celibate.
In 1519, when Cortés arrived a Yucatán, he heard about two white men who lived among the Maya. He sent messengers with a letter and necklaces to buy their freedom. The chief of Aguilar gave him his freedom. Aguilar visited Guerrero, who lived at another location, and asked him to come with him. Guerrero, who had status and a family with the Maya, chose to stay with them.
When Aguilar reached the coast, Cortés had already left, but fortunately for him, Cortés had to return to Cozumel because of a storm. Aguilar succeeded in meeting the Spanish. Afterwards, he was very useful to Cortés as an interpreter.
When Cortés arrived in Mesoamerica, the most powerful people were the Mexica, also known as Aztec. Their main city, Tenochtitlan (located at modern Mexico city), with a population of up to 200,000 people, was the centre of a large empire. Unfortunately for them they had gold, which the Spanish greatly desired.
In 1521, Cortés, who had come to to Mexico with only a few hundred men, succeeded in destroying Tenochtitlan and the Mexican empire. He had several advantages which facilitated this: the Spanish had better weapons, cross-bows, guns, and horses; the king of the Mexica, Moctezuma II, was very superstitious (he believed that Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcoatl, and therefore liable to be appeased, but not defeated); the Mexica were hated by the people whom they had conquered, and because of this, the Spanish were able to make alliances; finally, the Spanish brought small-pox, which killed many of the Mexica.
The conquest of the Maya lasted much longer; the last independent kingdom, that of the Itza in Peten, finally fell in 1697. Even afterwards, the Maya showed themselves to be very resistant to Spanish rule. In the nineteenth century, the Maya of Yucatán rebelled against church taxes and the appropriation of Mayan land. This rebellion is called the Cast War. At first, in 1848, the rebels almost succeeded in reconquering the entire Yucatán! They were pushed back, however the eastern part of Yucatán remained independent for 50 years.
The history of the Maya after the Conquest is a fascinating topic. The summary given here is far too brief, but unfortunately I'll have to leave this topic for another time.
 |
|
 |
| Michael D. Coe | |||
| 1999 | The Maya, 6th edition, Thames & Hudson, ISBN 0-500-28066-5 | ||
| Larry C. Peterson, Gerald H. Haug | |||
| July-Aug 2005 | Climate and the Collapse of Maya Civilization, American Scientist | ||
